Imagine standing on the shores of the Dead Sea today, looking out over its briny waters. Now, picture that same view 25,000 years ago. Instead of a small, shrinking lake, you’d be gazing at a vast body of water stretching as far as the eye can see. Welcome to Lake Lisan, the Pleistocene precursor to the Dead Sea, and our next stop on our geo-biblical exploration.
But before we can visit Lake Lisan we need to go back even further in time to the lake and lagoon system that once filled Dead Sea rift.
Where did the salt deposits of the Dead Sea come from?
Geologists studying the Dead Sea region have developed a detailed understanding of its complex history, dividing the evolution of the Dead Sea Valley Rift—also called the Dead Sea Transform—into several distinct stages. This history extends far beyond Lake Lisan, the immediate precursor to the modern Dead Sea.
The earliest stage of the rift’s development began around 20 million years ago, as the Arabian Plate began to separate from the African Plate (Garfunkel, 2014). Initially, the rift formed a valley that maintained an intermittent connection to the Mediterranean Sea through the Yizre’el (Jezreel) Valley. This connection persisted for a considerable time—approximately 3-5 million years—during which water from the Mediterranean flowed intermittently into the Jordan Valley as sea levels fluctuated due to global climate changes (Waldmann et al., 2010).
During this period, known as the Sedom lagoon stage, a vast, hypersaline water body formed in the rift valley. Continuous evaporation in the arid climate caused the water to become supersaturated with salt. Torfstein et al. (2008) provided evidence for this stage through their analysis of the Sedom Formation, a thick sequence of evaporites deposited during this time.
As Matmon et al. (1999) demonstrated through thermochronology studies, while salt water and sediment were accumulating in the valley, the valley floor was simultaneously subsiding due to the ongoing rifting process. This created additional vertical space for the thick deposits we observe today.
During particularly hot and dry climatic cycles, which could last thousands of years, salts precipitated out of the lagoon waters and were deposited at the bottom of the deepening basin. Over time, these salt layers, interbedded with clastic sediments, accumulated to thicknesses exceeding 10,000 feet (3 km), filling the ever-widening rift (Weinberger et al., 2006).
A significant change occurred around 1.5-1 million years ago, as documented by Matmon et al. (2003) through their study of stream capture and drainage evolution. The Judean Mountains, west of what is now the Dead Sea valley, were gradually uplifted. This tectonic activity lifted the Yizre’el Valley, severing the connection between the Mediterranean Sea and the rift basin. The result was a single, elongated salt water lake over 100 miles long, which has been named Lake Amora (Torfstein et al., 2008).
Cut off from its marine water source and situated in an arid climate, Lake Amora began to shrink. As it contracted, the remaining water became even more saline, leading to increased rates of evaporite deposition. Waldmann et al. (2007) provided evidence for this stage through their analysis of the Amora Formation.
Eventually, Lake Amora reached a quasi-equilibrium state where water input roughly balanced evaporation. However, as Bartov et al. (2002) showed through their study of lake level fluctuations, the lake surface continued to fall relative to sea level due to the ongoing tectonic subsidence of the rift valley.
As the floor of the Jordan Valley continued to subside, reaching greater depths, the lake evolved into a smaller water body more closely resembling the modern Dead Sea in shape and size. This phase, beginning around 70,000 years ago, marks the transition to Lake Lisan, the immediate predecessor of the Dead Sea (Torfstein et al., 2013).
The Physical Characteristics of Lake Lisan
Lake Lisan was a true giant compared to today’s Dead Sea though not nearly as big as Lake Amora. At its maximum extent around 25,000 years ago, it reached levels of about 500 to 590 feet below sea level (compared to today’s Dead Sea level of about -1410 feet). This means the lake could have been up to 700 feet deep in places! (Torfstein et al., 2013)
But it wasn’t just deeper – it was also much more extensive. Lake Lisan stretched from the Sea of Galilee in the north to about 18 miles south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea. At its peak, it covered an area more than twice that of the modern Dead Sea and was over 150 miles in length compared to the 36-mile length of the present-day lake (Bartov et al., 2002).
Yes, the Sea of Galilee was once part of a much larger lake. Rember that the Sea of Galilee is itself below sea level (700 feet!). Today it is a freshwater lake as natural fresh water spring feed the land along with the Jordan River. But this has not always been the case. The high water mark of Lake Lisan was above the current level of the Sea of Galilee though still below sea level itself. At that time the water was very salty leaving salt beds in the sediments under and surrounding the Sea of Galilee today.
How do we know there were large lakes in the Jordan Valley in the past? One obvious evidence come from the shorelines of Lake Lisan that have left their mark on the landscape. Researchers have identified ancient beach ridges and wave-cut platforms at various elevations around the Dead Sea basin. These features provide crucial evidence for past lake levels and have been used to reconstruct the lake’s history (Bowman, 1971).
One particularly interesting feature is the presence of aragonite deposits along these ancient shorelines. Aragonite is a form of calcium carbonate that precipitates out of the water under certain conditions. The presence of these deposits tells us about the chemistry of the ancient lake and provides material that can be dated using uranium-thorium methods (Stein et al., 1997).
Climate Context of Lake Lisan
To understand Lake Lisan, we need to consider the global climate context in which it existed. Lake Lisan’s lifespan, from about 70,000 to 14,000 years ago, coincides with the last glacial period. While much of North America and Europe were covered by massive ice sheets, the Levant experienced a generally cooler and wetter climate than today.
This might seem counterintuitive – how could a glacier-dominated world lead to more water in the Dead Sea region? The answer lies in global atmospheric circulation patterns. During glacial periods, the jet stream (which steers storms) tends to shift southward. This brought more winter storms to the Levant, increasing precipitation in the region (Enzel et al., 2008).
But Lake Lisan’s history wasn’t one of steady wetness. Its levels fluctuated dramatically, reflecting significant climate variations both regionally and globally. One of the most striking findings is how closely Lake Lisan’s level changes mirror global climate events.
For instance, Torfstein et al. (2013) found that Lake Lisan’s level drops corresponded with Heinrich events – periods of extreme cold in the North Atlantic when armadas of icebergs broke off from glaciers and melted in the ocean. These events had far-reaching effects on global climate, and we can see their fingerprints in the sediments of Lake Lisan thousands of miles away.
This connection between Lake Lisan and global climate patterns underscores the interconnectedness of Earth’s climate system. It also highlights the value of Lake Lisan as a climate archive – by studying its sediments, we gain insights not just into local conditions, but into global climate dynamics over tens of thousands of years.
Lake Level Fluctuations
Lake Lisan’s story is one of dramatic ups and downs. Its water levels didn’t just change gradually over time – they fluctuated wildly, sometimes rising or falling by tens of feet in relatively short periods. These fluctuations provide us with a detailed record of climate change in the region.
Torfstein et al. (2013) used uranium-thorium dating of aragonite layers in the lake’s sediments to construct a high-resolution timeline of these changes. Their work revealed that Lake Lisan experienced multiple cycles of rise and fall, with some particularly dramatic shifts. For instance, they found evidence of a rapid 145-foot drop in lake level around 24,000 years ago, followed by an equally rapid rise.
But what caused these fluctuations? The answer lies in the delicate balance between water input and evaporation. During wetter periods, increased rainfall and reduced evaporation caused the lake to rise. During drier times, the opposite occurred. By studying these fluctuations, scientists can reconstruct past rainfall patterns in the region.
Recent climate modeling studies have helped to explain these fluctuations. Stockhecke et al. (2016) used a sophisticated climate model to simulate the conditions that led to Lake Lisan’s high stands. They found that a southward shift of the storm tracks that bring rain to the region, combined with cooler temperatures that reduced evaporation, could account for the dramatic rise in lake level.
Interestingly, these lake level changes weren’t just responding to local conditions. They were tied into global climate patterns. For example, some of Lake Lisan’s low stands coincide with Heinrich events – periods of extreme cold in the North Atlantic. This suggests that the climate of the Levant was strongly influenced by global climate dynamics, even tens of thousands of years ago.
As noted earlier, we can also see evidence of these lake level changes in the landscape around the Dead Sea. Ancient shorelines, visible as terraces and beach deposits on the surrounding hillsides, mark past high stands of the lake. By dating these shorelines, researchers like Bartov et al. (2002) have been able to corroborate and extend the sediment-based lake level reconstructions.
More on these ancient shorelines in the next installment of our series of article.
Sedimentary Record of Lake Lisan
The sediments deposited in Lake Lisan provide an invaluable record of past climate changes. One of the most striking features of these sediments is their distinct layering. They consist of alternating light and dark layers, known as varves, which represent annual deposits. The light layers are composed of aragonite, a form of calcium carbonate that precipitated from the lake water during summer evaporation. The dark layers consist of fine-grained detrital material washed into the lake during winter floods.
These varves aren’t just beautiful to look at – they’re a powerful tool for understanding past climate. By counting the layers, researchers can determine the duration of different climate phases with annual precision. The thickness and composition of the layers provide information about past rainfall, temperature, and lake chemistry.
Recent advances in sediment analysis techniques have allowed researchers to extract an unprecedented amount of information from these layers. Ben Dor et al. (2019) used micro-facies analysis and high-resolution XRF scanning to study the varves in great detail. Their work revealed subtle variations in sediment composition that reflect changes in lake conditions on seasonal to millennial timescales.
For example, the thickness of the dark detrital layers can indicate the intensity of winter floods, giving us insight into past rainfall patterns. The composition of the aragonite layers can tell us about the lake’s salinity and chemical makeup, which in turn reflect the balance between water input and evaporation.
But the sediments don’t just tell us about the lake itself. They also preserve evidence of the broader environment around Lake Lisan. Miebach et al. (2019) analyzed pollen grains preserved in the lake sediments to reconstruct the vegetation history of the region. Their work shows how plant communities responded to climate changes, with more drought-tolerant species dominating during drier periods and Mediterranean woodland expanding during wetter times.
Other researchers have used the sediments to study past seismic activity in the region. Kagan et al. (2018) identified layers in the sediments that had been disturbed by ancient earthquakes, providing a long-term record of seismic activity along the Dead Sea fault. We will take a much closer look at this earthquake recordings, called siesmites, in a later chapter.
All of this information, locked away in the layers of sediment, gives us a remarkably detailed picture of how the environment in this region has changed over tens of thousands of years. It’s like reading a history book written by the Earth itself, with each layer of sediment representing a page in that book.
Paleoenvironment Around Lake Lisan
While Lake Lisan itself provides a wealth of information about past climates, the surrounding landscape offers additional clues about the paleoenvironment of the region. By piecing together evidence from various sources, scientists can paint a vivid picture of what the area was like during the last glacial period.
One of the most valuable sources of information comes from pollen analysis. Pollen grains, preserved in lake sediments and in deposits from caves and rock shelters, provide a record of past vegetation. Miebach et al. (2019) conducted a detailed pollen analysis of sediments from the northern part of the Lake Lisan basin. Their findings reveal significant changes in vegetation over time, reflecting shifts in temperature and precipitation.
During the coldest and driest phases, the landscape was dominated by steppe vegetation, with grasses and drought-tolerant shrubs. However, during wetter periods, there’s evidence of expanded woodland, with oak and pistachio trees becoming more prevalent. This expansion of woodland vegetation suggests periods of increased rainfall, corroborating the evidence from higher lake levels.
But plants weren’t the only inhabitants of the Lake Lisan region. Fossil remains provide evidence of the animals that once roamed these shores. Tchernov (1975) described a rich fauna including large mammals like aurochs (wild cattle), red deer, and even hippopotamuses. The presence of these animals suggests a landscape with ample vegetation and water resources, quite different from the arid environment we see today.
Human activity around Lake Lisan is also evident in the archaeological record. Stone tools and other artifacts have been found in caves and open-air sites around the former lakeshores. For example, Goring-Morris and Belfer-Cohen (2020) described evidence of human occupation in the Jordan Valley during the Upper Paleolithic period, coinciding with the time of Lake Lisan. These archaeological finds give us insight into how early humans interacted with and adapted to the changing environment around the lake. We will look at this evidence of human activity further in Part VIII, Ancient Settlements Below Sea Level: Evidence of an Old Earth.
Geomorphological evidence also contributes to our understanding of the paleoenvironment. Features like wave-cut terraces, beach ridges, and alluvial fans tell us about past lake levels and the processes that shaped the landscape. Bowman and Gross (1992) mapped these features around the Dead Sea basin, providing a physical record of Lake Lisan’s fluctuations that complements the sedimentary evidence.
Geochemical Evidence
Geochemistry provides yet another line of evidence for reconstructing the history of Lake Lisan. By analyzing the chemical composition of lake sediments and other geological materials, scientists can infer past environmental conditions with remarkable precision.
Isotope studies have been particularly revealing. Kolodny et al. (2005) analyzed oxygen and carbon isotopes in aragonite layers from Lake Lisan sediments. The ratio of these isotopes is sensitive to changes in temperature and the balance between evaporation and precipitation. Their results showed clear cycles in isotope ratios, corresponding to alternating wet and dry periods.
Trace element analysis of lake sediments has also yielded valuable information. Katz et al. (1977) found that the ratio of strontium to calcium in Lake Lisan sediments varied over time, reflecting changes in the lake’s water sources. During wetter periods, the increased input of freshwater from rivers and springs altered the lake’s chemistry, leaving a signature in the sediments.
More recently, organic geochemistry has opened up new avenues for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Neugebauer et al. (2014) used biomarkers – organic molecules produced by specific organisms – to track changes in Lake Lisan’s ecosystem over time. They found evidence of periods when cyanobacteria flourished in the lake, indicating times of lower salinity and higher nutrient availability.
These geochemical indicators complement the physical evidence from sediments and shorelines, providing a multi-faceted view of Lake Lisan’s history. They allow us to reconstruct not just the size and depth of the lake, but also its chemistry, biology, and the climatic conditions that shaped it.
The power of this geochemical evidence lies in its ability to provide quantitative estimates of past conditions. For example, Lazar et al. (2014) used the isotopic composition of gypsum deposits to estimate past evaporation rates from Lake Lisan. They found that evaporation rates during the last glacial period were about 30% lower than they are today, helping to explain how such a large lake could exist in this arid region.
By combining these various lines of geochemical evidence, researchers can cross-validate their findings and build a more robust understanding of Lake Lisan’s history. This multi-proxy approach has become increasingly important in paleoclimate studies, allowing scientists to disentangle the complex interplay of factors that influence climate and environment.
As we’ve seen, the story of Lake Lisan is written not just in its sediments, but in the very atoms that make up those sediments. Next, we’ll explore how Lake Lisan came to an end, and what its demise can tell us about the dramatic climate changes that ushered in our current geological epoch.
The Demise of Lake Lisan
All great lakes must come to an end, and Lake Lisan was no exception. Around 14,000 years ago, as the last ice age was coming to an end, Lake Lisan began to shrink. This wasn’t a gradual, peaceful transition – it was a time of dramatic and sometimes abrupt changes that transformed the landscape of the Levant.
The primary driver of Lake Lisan’s demise was climate change. As the massive ice sheets that covered much of the Northern Hemisphere began to melt, global atmospheric circulation patterns shifted. For the Levant, this meant a general trend towards a warmer and drier climate. With less rainfall and increased evaporation, Lake Lisan’s water budget tipped into the negative.
But this wasn’t a smooth, linear process. Stein et al. (2010) used a combination of radiocarbon dating and uranium-thorium dating to create a high-resolution chronology of Lake Lisan’s final years. They found evidence of rapid fluctuations in lake level, suggesting that the climate was highly unstable during this transition period.
One particularly dramatic event occurred around 14,500 years ago, coinciding with a period known as the Bølling-Allerød warming. Torfstein et al. (2013) found evidence of a rapid drop in lake level of about 100 meters over just a few hundred years. This precipitous decline would have dramatically reshaped the landscape, exposing vast areas of former lakebed and drastically altering local ecosystems.
The final transformation from Lake Lisan to the Dead Sea wasn’t just a matter of the lake shrinking. As the water level dropped, the lake became increasingly saline. Katz and Starinsky (2009) studied the geochemistry of the transition and found that the lake underwent a fundamental change in its chemical composition. The relatively fresh Lake Lisan, with its annual layers of aragonite, gave way to the hypersaline Dead Sea we know today.
By about 11,000 years ago, the lake had contracted to roughly the size of the modern Dead Sea, marking the end of Lake Lisan and the beginning of the Dead Sea’s history. But the echoes of Lake Lisan can still be seen in the landscape today, in the form of raised beaches, salt deposits, and sedimentary records that continue to yield insights into the region’s past.
Challenging Flood Geology
How does all this evidence fit with young Earth creationist (YEC) models, particularly flood geology? In short, it doesn’t. Here are some of the forms of evidence we have examined and why they are a challenge to the young-earth timeline:
- Timeframe: Lake Lisan existed for about 56,000 years, from 70,000 to 14,000 years ago. This timeframe alone is more than ten times longer than the entire history of the Earth according to YEC models.
- Annual Layers: A large number of varves, found hundreds of feet above the Dead Sea, in Lake Lisan sediments represent annual deposits. There are tens of thousands of these layers that fit the characteristics of annual layers, far more than could have formed in the few thousand years since Noah’s Flood in YEC chronology.
- Climate Fluctuations: Lake Lisan’s history records numerous climate fluctuations over tens of thousands of years. These changes are gradual and cyclical, not consistent with a single catastrophic flood event.
- Correlation with Global Events: The synchronization of Lake Lisan’s changes with global climate events recorded in distant ice cores like Heinrich events requires long periods of time and gradual processes, not a single year-long flood.
- Biological evidence: The pollen record and other biological indicators show gradual changes in ecosystems over time, not the catastrophic destruction and rapid recovery that a global flood would necessitate.
- Transition to the Dead Sea: The gradual transition from Lake Lisan to the Dead Sea over several thousand years is incompatible with flood geology models. If Abraham is looking down into the Valley of Siddim 4100 years ago and is seeing the same thing you would see now, then Lake Lisan had to have existed and disappeared in just 350 years from the end of the Flood until the time of Abraham.
- Geochemical Evidence: The complex geochemical signatures in Lake Lisan sediments, including isotope ratios and trace element compositions, reflect gradual environmental changes over long periods. These detailed chemical records are inconsistent with a single catastrophic flood event.
- Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction: The diverse evidence from pollen, fossils, and archaeological remains around Lake Lisan paints a picture of gradually changing ecosystems over tens of thousands of years. This contrasts sharply with the rapid, catastrophic changes expected in a flood geology model.
- Shoreline Features: The presence of multiple, well-preserved shorelines at different elevations around the Dead Sea basin indicates repeated cycles of lake level changes over long periods, rather than a single flood event.
- Correlation with Ice Core Records: The synchronization of Lake Lisan’s changes with climate events recorded in distant ice cores (like Heinrich events) demonstrates global climate patterns operating over long timescales, which is difficult to reconcile with a young Earth model.
- Evaporite Formation: The thick deposits of salt and gypsum left by Lake Lisan require multiple cycles of concentration and precipitation, a process that would take far longer than the timeframe allowed in a young Earth model.
To date no young-earth creationists has made an attempt to fully engage with the evidence provided here. However, with a good knowledge of young-earth creationist (YEC) literature and their typical approaches to geological evidence, I can speculate on how they might attempt to explain the origins of the Dead Sea and Lake Lisan within their framework. Here are some hypotheses they might propose:
Post-Flood Lake Formation: YECs might argue that Lake Lisan formed rapidly in the immediate aftermath of the global flood, as floodwaters receded and collected in topographic lows created by tectonic activity during the flood.
Accelerated Processes: They might suggest that sediment deposition, evaporite formation, and shoreline development occurred at much faster rates than conventional geology suggests, due to residual catastrophic processes following the flood.
Reinterpretation of Varves: YECs often argue that what geologists interpret as annual layers (varves) could have formed much more quickly, perhaps as a result of multiple flow events during or shortly after the flood.
Climate Instability: They might propose that the apparent climate fluctuations recorded in Lake Lisan sediments actually represent short-term instabilities in the centuries following the flood, rather than long-term climate cycles.
Questioning Dating Methods: YECs typically challenge radiometric dating methods, so they might argue that the dates assigned to Lake Lisan sediments are unreliable and that the entire sequence formed much more recently.
Rapid Tectonic Activity: They might suggest that the formation of the Dead Sea rift and associated features occurred rapidly due to accelerated tectonic processes during and immediately after the flood.
Reinterpretation of Fossils and Artifacts: YECs might argue that the fossils and archaeological artifacts found around Lake Lisan represent post-flood recolonization rather than long-term occupation.
Biblical Correlation: Some might try to correlate Lake Lisan with biblical events, perhaps suggesting it was a short-lived feature that existed during the time of Abraham or other Old Testament figures. We will discuss this much further in upcoming parts of this series.
Catastrophic Drainage: They might propose that Lake Lisan drained catastrophically, perhaps tying this to a biblical event, to explain its rapid transition to the Dead Sea. But drainage to where? This is the lowest subaerial place on earth.
Different Water Sources: YECs might suggest that Lake Lisan was fed by different water sources than today, perhaps remnants of the flood waters or extensive post-flood glacial melting, to explain its larger size.
It’s important to note that each of these hypotheses would face significant scientific challenges and would not be considered valid explanations by the broader scientific community. They represent speculative attempts to fit the evidence into a young-earth timeline rather than explanations based on the full range of geological evidence. More importantly, these attempts to call into question one form of evidence lack the cohesiveness of a unified model that can explain a wide range of forms of data.
Conclusion
Lake Lisan provides us with a remarkable window into the climate history of the Levant. Its sediments tell a story of dramatic environmental changes over tens of thousands of years, influenced by global climate processes. This history is recorded in exquisite detail, allowing us to reconstruct past environments almost year by year.
In our next installment, we’ll explore an even more dramatic episode in the Dead Sea’s history – a time when it may have dried up completely.
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Naturalis Historia 